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Introduction
The survey intends to investigate the financial status
of the youth, i.e. age groups 18-29 of both genders,
mainly in Tehran City which could represent the wider
society of Iran. The survey aims to serve for the socio-financial
empowerment of youth, and will eventually contribute
to the implementation and realization of the youth who
need effective and influencing policies to improve their
quality of life.
Based on Iran's national census in 2011, approximately,
youth include 33% or 25 million of the total population
of the country. The demographic profile of the increasing
youth at the age of employability and income indicates
that a large number of the educated and skilled youth
do not enjoy adequate financial and intellectual opportunities
available to their counterparts in developed and newly-emerging
economies. However, social and economic hazards and
disparities have their effects on the quality of life
of the young men and women of Iran. Such a situation
makes the youth of both genders very vulnerable. High
and rising figures of unemployment especially within
the youth have contributed to serious concerns. Sociologically
speaking such issues will cause long-term challenges
if not addressed in time and in place.
The shortage of socio-financial conditions faced by
the youth is mainly due to the inadequate knowledge
of budgeting and financial challenges. To secure a financial
future, the youth need to balance their income and expenditure,
but it rarely occurs. Generally speaking, many young
men and women in Iran who are at working age, but do
not earn any monthly income, depend on their parents'
income. Currently, the youth are facing newly- emerging
controversies stemming from rapid social change, new
lifestyles and modes of life. While all of them need
more income resources, many youth cannot afford them,
and as a result, remain destitute and disappointed.
Such youth being deprived of jobs and income, cannot
easily start their marital life which has led to various
socio-cultural problems within the youth all over the
country. Delay in marriage has widely contributed to
low fertility rate, and for many, it has resulted in
infertility. Apart from such social impacts, the scenario
creates various vulnerabilities in the economy. As agreed,
for a more sustainable economy, the personal saving
rates must increase. However, it is worth mentioning
that low personal savings by the youth would be detrimental
to a country's economy. On the other hand, making sound
personal investment decisions by the youth would have
a positive impact on the Iranian economy, and would
lead to economic prosperity as a whole.
However, investing in children and youth would transform
their lives and their healthy development. It will also
lead to their economic and social progress. Similarly,
planning for the youth income would dynamize the mainstream
of the economy, and the vicious circle will continue.
Creation of an enabling environment in which young men
and women get their rights, gives them access to constructive
information and educational services, which would eventually
pay the youth and the society. While that would empower
social and economic processes, the youth will also realize
their potential as agents for social change and development.
Therefore, raising the profile of the young men and
women in Iran by providing them with income and occupations,
would lead to positive returns for the youth as well
as the society. Such a motivation will increase the
social responsibility of the youth, followed by their
improved quality of life.
However, promoting the financial capabilities of young
men and women in Iran will first of all prevent them
from vulnerabilities and many other deprivations. Dencentralization
of planning and investment will highly help the youth
get occupations and access to regular income to meet
their expanding needs. Notwithstanding, creation of
balance between the income and expenditure of the youth
will result in their improved health status, social
networks, their jobs and earnings, their subjective
well-being, the environment quality, their housing and
their quality of life as a whole. Though the young generation
under the age of 30 prefer to have paid jobs, very few
succeed, many remain unsuccessful, and some are engaged
in self-employed jobs, or so called free jobs.
While money is not expected to purchase happiness, it
is an important means to achieve higher standard of
living, a decent life, and thus greater well-being,
and the absence or shortage of which will result in
socio-economic challenges. Youth net-adjusted disposable
income is the amount of money that a young man or woman
earns each month/year after taxes and transfers. In
the present article, it refers to the money available
to a young man or woman for spending on goods and services.
Holding an occupation includes many important benefits
such as: providing a source of income, sustaining social
inclusion, reaching one's own
aspirations and improving skills and competencies, with
special reference to the youth.
Methodology
The research techniques used in the present research
to yield the intended social data is based on a mixed-method
strategy of investigation. While the main technique
of study in the present research is administering questionnaires,
the researcher also used interview method as per need.
In addition, documents and books were also used as major
sources of inquiries. In the theoretical section, the
author has referred to relevant theories, approaches
and literature reviews. In completing the research,
555 samples of both genders were consulted to produce
a reliable and valid work. The research is based on
the main hypothesis that: "reasonable permanent
income determines the propensity to consume". However,
the researcher used both the quantitative and qualitative
methods to reflect the financial conditions of the youth
in terms of income and expenditure in a changing urban
society.
Theoretical
Perspectives
Youth unemployment that leads to income problems, is
often seen in terms of moral crisis. It is in practice,
when jobs are extremely hard to obtain. However, more
than 40 percent of the world's unemployed are youth
(United Nations 2002). In most parts of the world, youth
unemployment exceeds that among older people (O'Higgins:2001).
However, many young people are underemployed, meaning
that they have insufficient work to keep them fully
occupied which means that they earn inadequate income
to be able to meet their basic needs. They may also
usually have poor-quality employment in the informal
sector. There are many views why unemployment is high
within the youth. Some stem from population, but in
addition, there are many more reasons responsible for
the problem (O'Higgins:2001). Youth unemployment rates
are much in conjunction with adult unemployment as well
as the conditions of economic growth. However, youth
labor force cannot compete for occupations that require
skills at high levels and maturity as far as experience
is concerned. Therefore, such criteria are valued and
counted for in employment occasions.
Similarly, youth unemployment/income issue is much subject
to economic decline. For example, the labor market has
structurally declined in Central Asia, and there are
uncertain prospects for school leavers (Falkingham:2000).
If we go back to the Soviet era, in a country like Kazakhstan,
there were a lot of opportunities available to youth
who left schools and universities, especially for those
with parents of high social standing (Rigi: 2003).
As far as the developing countries are concerned, unemployment
is concentrated among selected social groups of the
youth; especially the poor. However, the gender distribution
of unemployment is not very clear among the youth. In
this regard, women usually have lower chances as compared
with men. For example, in Jamaica and Iran where educational
attainment is higher among females than males, women
are more subject to unemployment (O'Higgins:2001). In
societies where education gives self-respect to the
youth such as India, they are not willing to work as
laborers (Jeffrey et al., 2003). As a result, youth
unemployment can lead to marginalization, exclusion,
frustration, low self-esteem and sometimes to acts that
create burdens on society (United Nations 2002). However
socio-economic change has contributed to a fresh occasions/opportunities
that enable youth of both genders to be selective in
choosing their employment (Kelly:1999).
The state of having sufficient independent income to
live on, is an important indicator of youth independent
lives, and without which challenges will emerge (Cummuta:2009).
However, if the youth can generate income that is greater
than their expenditures, then they would feel comfortable
and happy. To harmonize income with expenditure, and
to prevent bankruptcy, simple living is advised, or
other strategies to reduce expenses. Based on passive
source of income or unearned income such as rentals,
or interest from a bank account etc., if stopped, income
and expenditure do not cope with each other, and thus
challenges will emerge (Retrieved :2013).
Strain theories also predict a link between economic
deprivation and youth violence (Merton:1949). By that
is meant; absence of income, or an unbalanced income-
expenditure relationship is very likely to lead to rebellion
and other social vulnerabilities. Similarly, based on
economic theories of crime, poverty lays the ground,
while inequality serves to further exacerbate the situation
(Becker:1968; Block and Heineke:1975; Ehrlich: 1973).
Income and employment theory represents the level of
expenditure by the people in the course of time. Keynes
also offered new thinking on income and employment theory
with the publication of General Theory of Employment,
Interest and Money (1936). Based on this theory, transactions
are two-sided, and that is: one person's income is another
person's expenditure. Therefore, fall in incomes further
reduces consumer demand, and it eventually reduces the
rate of savings (Encyclopedia Britannica: 2014).
Consumption function as a response to income creates
economic transactions, economic prosperity, and a state
of tranquility for the youth. Consumption is based on
current income, and ignores potential future income
(D'Orlando:2010). Consumption is also relative to production.
Therefore, consumption or somehow expenditure has to
be analyzed in the context of a person's production/income
(Mincer:1963). As developing countries are copying the
consumption patterns and modes of the developed economies,
that will create a shortage that the earth cannot fulfill.
Therefore, affordable policies and strategies need to
be adopted and practiced.
Modernization theory has multi-dimensionally affected
the youth with special reference to those of the developing
world through education, industrialization, urbanization
etc. (Rostow:1960). This process is rapidly continuing
in new dimensions such as the electronics and communications.
Mass education is assessed as both a requirement for,
and an indicator of modernity (Inkeles and Smith:1974).
Education as a platform has largely transformed the
value system of the youth, their socio-economic expectations,
and their lifestyles. Such circumstances motivate the
youth to have access to adequate incomes leading to
new expenditures in terms of goods and services. Human
capital theory which is known as a drive for economic
growth originates from modernization theory. On the
contrary, lack of skills and education among the young
labor force in the Third World countries is believed
to hold back productivity. Therefore, children are a
resource to be invested in (UNICEF:1996). As a result,
both education and technologies such as schools and
immunization contribute to and improve the health of
the future workforce.
Policies inspired from modernization have large impacts
on youth apart from schooling and immunization. For
example, investment in industrialization led to rapid
urbanization which is gradually followed by new expectations
and new ways of life. In modern times, the youth expect
formal employment that is not always fulfilled. Under
such circumstances the youths' income and expenditures
do not remain balanced.
Socialism
and dependency theory
Some of the countries that obtained independence from
1950 onwards, partly rejected the Western-style of development,
and instead chose the policies/ideologies based on Marxist
thoughts and institutions. These countries are ranked
as China, Chile, Cuba and Ethiopia. Though it was implemented
differently from nation to nation, in this process,
land, mineral resources and industries were nationalized,
and foreign trade and investment brought under state
control, followed by rigid price controls (Kilmister:
2000). The purpose of such development was to benefit
the lower classes, and not just the owners of capital.
In that, youth employment and income were assured and
fulfilled according to the governing standards. Based
on Marxian thought and dependency theory, social investment
on children and youth is highly emphasized and desirable.
In that, children are more considered legitimate subjects
of government intervention. They are considered as a
nation's future.
Youth and Housing
In Iran and especially in Tehran City, housing costs
absorb the largest part of the household budget, and
thus, it represents the heaviest expenditure for a large
number of individuals and families especially the youth.
Therefore, it is currently a challenging issue for the
youth; even preventing them from marrying and starting
a married life. Similarly, as the joint family system
is not there anymore, and generally a nuclear family
system is prevalent, the new norms and values are not
compatible with the youth income-expenditure relationship.
In the past three decades Iran's youth number has been
increasing beyond the socio-economic carrying capacity
of the country, and beyond the necessary infrastructure.
This emerging gap has created numerous challenges and
issues for the youth. However, low-income youth are
pulled towards illegal activities and other socio-economic
vulnerabilities. Under the slow economic growth in Iran
in the past three decades, a large number of young men
and women of age groups 18-29 are unemployed. They are
the persons who are not currently working, but are willing
to do so.
Generally, females have low labor force participation
chance, and that contributes to shortage of income within
them, leading to eventually delay in marriage. Therefore,
the scenario makes young females vulnerable in different
respects. Nonetheless there are high hopes and prospects
for more female participation and employment in urban
areas with special reference to university-educated
females under the recent landmark deal with world powers
and the socio-political developments in Iran.
Humans as social creatures are highly dependent on social
networks, and if strong, they can have better access
to jobs, services and various opportunities. On the
contrary, lack of poor social networks may lead to limited
economic opportunities, and ultimately the appearance
of isolation. Similarly, the emerging conditions could
result in failure of personal aspirations. Similarly,
education and training are two elements necessary for
the youth development and economic well-being. The above-mentioned
factors have a direct impact on the quality of youth
housing.
The importance of housing needs no emphasis; it is one
of our primary needs of life (Rao,2001:7). Housing issues
in Iran are associated much with social and economic
conditions of the country. Poverty being a multi-dimensional
problem, and a major challenge all over the globe, its
solutions are country specific (Uberoi, 2003:6). Therefore,
an effective strategy is needed to tackle the problems
of development and poverty, beginning with economic
conditions of the youth, their resources and productivity.
To reach the objective, youth employment and income-
generating programs need to be put on the agenda.
Youth
and Change
Youth are described as agents of change, or so to say,
the "barometer of social change". They are
subject to any changes at world level, and respond most
effectively to them. However, the generational divide
should not become a social divide. The new society must
seek to prevent exclusion, integrate the young and the
old, and the rich and the poor (Tiong:2004). Therefore,
young people are expected to establish themselves in
a new social context, and deal with any vulnerability,
the new world provides new possibilities as well as
threats. However, one of the challenges as recognized,
being faced by the youth in modern times is the income
of the youth in countries like Iran with a very young
population structure with the median age of 28.3 in
2015 (Consus:2011). Iran's human development index (HDI)
has largely changed in the past recent decades. In that,
greater number of youth have obtained university degrees
at graduate and post graduate levels, but income and
employment opportunities have not developed as such.
The gap created, has resulted in income and expenditure
problems within the youth.
Literature
Review
As a result of a population explosion, the urban areas
such as Tehran in Iran are facing income and employment
concerns within the increasing youth. Like many other
developing countries, Iran is also a victim of rapid
increase in its urban population resulting in employment
chaos. The scenario has contributed to income and expenditure
challenges with special reference to the young population
age group of both genders. However, the emerging phenomenon
has brought about various vulnerabilities. Factors responsible
for the emerging situation include numbers, density
and heterogeneity of population (Wirth:1938). Though
in the past only young men expected occupations and
income, nowadays young women also expect the same, and
the shortage of which is a matter of concern for them
too. Therefore, this is where the challenges and complications
of income and expenditure start from within the youth
in Iran. Thus, if the fundamental features of urban
environment are not in place, a range of urban social
behaviors would emerge ___ leading to social problems
caused by the shortage and imbalance of income and expenditure
within the youth.
According to social mobility theory (Lispset and Bendix:
1959), though stability of modern industrial society
is maintained, yet controversies emerge due to increasing
job seekers with special reference to the youth in urban
areas. Another perspective denotes that technology is
responsible for the nature of social relations including
income, employment and housing conditions (Turner, 2000:341).
However, the social interactions of the individuals
are influenced by their economic ability. Likewise,
economic sociology identifies the relationship between
economic conditions of the youth and their income-expenditure
proportion (Smelser et al.1994).
Figure 1: The impacts
of structural adjustment policies on youth
Table 1: Classification
of Youth by Age and Gender in Tehran City
Abridged Table 2: Classification of Youth by Gender
and Occupational Status in Tehran City
Abridged Table 3: Classification of Youth by Gender,
Age and Marital Status in Tehran City
Abridged Table 4: Classification of Youth by Gender,
Age and Educational Level in Tehran City
Abridged Table 5: Classification of Youth by Gender,
Age and Educational Status in Tehran City
Abridged Table 6: Classification of Youth by Gender,
Age and their Accommodation Status in Tehran City
Abridged Table 7: Classification of Youth by Gender,
Age and How They are Financially Supported in Tehran
City
Abridged Table 8: Classification of Youth by Gender,
Age and Their Entry Years to Work in Tehran City
Abridged Table 9: Classification of Youth by Gender,
Age and the Year of Unemployment from the Time They
were Entitled to Work in Tehran City
Abridged Table 10: Classification of Youth by Gender,
Age and the Number of Siblings in Tehran City
Abridged Table 11: Classification of Youth by Gender,
Age and Rate of Satisfaction with Life in Tehran City
Abridged Table 12: Classification of Youth by Gender,
Age and Passage of Life Marginally in Tehran City
Abridged Table 13: Classification of Youth by Gender,
Age and State of Health of the Respondents in Tehran
City
Abridged Table 14: Classification of Youth by Gender,
Age and State of Health Insurance in Tehran City
Abridged Table 15: Classification of Youth by Gender,
Age and Average Transportation Expenditures in Tehran
City
Abridged Table 16: Classification of Youth by Gender,
Age and Financial Dependency on Family in Tehran City
Abridged Table 17: Classification of Youth by Gender,
Age and Regular Income Generation in Tehran City
Income-Expenditure Equilibrium
Income ladder of female respondents respectively indicates
137 (24.7%) as having no monthly income, 38 (6.9%) having
monthly income equivalent to less than US $ 150, some
29 (5.2%) drawing monthly income equivalent to US $
150 and 199. Another group of female respondents 27
(4.8%) people asserted to draw monthly income equivalent
to US $ 200-249, followed by another group of respondents
20 (3.6%) drawing monthly income equivalent to US $
250 and 299. The sixth column of the young respondents
16 (2.9%) people indicate drawing monthly income equivalent
to US $ 300 and 349, followed by another group of female
respondents 19 (3.5%) declaring their monthly income
equivalent to US $ 350 and 399. The ninth income group
27 (4.9%) indicates monthly income equivalent to US
$ 400 and 449, followed by 30 (5.5%) of female respondents
drawing monthly income equivalent to US $ 450 and above.
Out of 211 (38%) males, 69(12.5%) asserted to bear monthly
expenditure of equivalent to less than US $ 150, followed
by 54 (9.8%) bearing monthly expenditures of US $ 150
and 199. Similarly, 30 (5.4%) of the respondents reported
to spend equivalent to US $ 200 and 249 as their monthly
expenditure, followed by 22 (4%) respondents who asserted
to spend equivalent to US $ 250 and 299. Another group
of young respondents 10 (1.8%) expressed to spend equivalent
to US $300 and 349 as their monthly expenses. The sixth
group of youths comprising 12 (2.1%) declared to spend
equivalent to US $ 350 and 399 as their monthly expenditure,
followed by another group of 5 (0.8%) of respondents
who declared to spend US $ between 400 and 449 as their
monthly expenditure. The last group of 8 (1.5%) respondents
declared to spend equivalent to US $ 450 and above as
their monthly expenditure.
Discussion
The chain of unemployment, falling wages, falling income,
and as a result, fewer resources to use, less food to
eat, would lead to deterioration of youth welfare. Income-expenditure
approach has a direct relationship with the quality
of life of all the people; especially with that of the
youth. Any change in price levels affect expenditure,
and as a result, the economy as a whole. Any increase
in income results in consumption behavior. Therefore,
the positive income-expenditure improvement leading
to the created process, may continue. Sociologically
speaking, the demographic and economic trends need to
be set in such a way that the youth of both genders
when reaching working age, could get the chance of having
access to income. If it happens so, then many possible
challenges could be avoided, followed by a downward
trend of vulnerability within the youth in a given society.
It is the inequality in income and expenditure or so
to say, the gap between saving and investment that contributes
to changes in the price levels leading to the youth
poverty. The present research explores how income-expenditure
relationship is influenced by genders, age, cultural
differences and class. However, deprivation stemming
from unattended needs may lead the youth to committing
crimes. Hence, income-expenditure relationship needs
to be carefully and positively considered. Similarly,
social disorganization caused by factors such a poverty,
ethnic heterogeneity and residential mobility somehow
affects the income-expenditure relationship leading
to dissatisfaction within the youth not only in Iran,
but in other societies as well. It may be so discussed
that the economic deprivation of the youth may result
in youth violence, poor family health, community movements
and the like. On the contrary, some social researchers
such as Allen (1996) and Messner (1982) have found negative
relationship between poverty and crime; i.e., high levels
of poverty are associated with lower crime levels.
As a whole, to avoid economic deprivation and bring
about a reasonable relationship between income and expenditure
of the youth, direct creation of jobs is a pressing
point - an attempt to raise ways and lessen earning
disparities, especially those related to gender and
race (Currie:1996). However, if consumption function
is to maintain well, income factor must be ahead of
that. Iran, with a young age structure needs to invest
much on entrepreneurship so as to create income for
its youth of (15-29); that is about 32% of the entire
population (Census:2011).
Conclusion
Income-expenditure equilibrium creates what is known
as a circular flow of income, and if the flow is not
there, many needs cannot be met. Therefore, welfare
policies must be so designed leading to adequate income
to meet the increasing expenditure with special reference
to the youth not only in Iran, but in other countries
as well. Reasonable and adequate income needs to be
earned by the youth in order to meet the increasing
expenditures on food, clothing, housing, education,
health, leisure etc. Welfare and earning needs of the
youth need to be prioritized. That would lead the youth
to be more productive and reliant, and if not, they
would be deprived and vulnerable. However, if the process
continues, the entire social health will be adversely
affected. Since income- expenditure equilibrium is highly
subject to state policies, or so to say, socio-economic
policies, thus reasonable and applied policies need
to be designed and put into practice.
As far as the youth in Iran are concerned, creation
of a balance between their income and expenditure would
result in their improved health status, social network,
their subjective well-being and their quality of life
as a whole. Similarly, access to an adequate source
of income will enhance the youths' self-esteem and improve
their skills and competencies. Though the main reason
for the youth unemployment is supposed to be population
increase, yet other reasons are responsible for the
problem. Similarly, youths' low-income and unemployment
can lead to their marginalization, exclusion, frustration
and their low self-esteem. To prevent bankruptcy, harmonization
of income with expenditure is suggested, and likewise
simple living is advised in addition to other strategies
to reduce expenses. In the modern age, the youth expect
formal employment that is not always fulfilled, and
that is where the youths' income and expenditures do
not remain balanced. It is worth mentioning that due
to demographic change, and as a result increase of young
population beyond the socio-economic carrying capacity,
and the adequate infrastructures, emerging disequilibrium
between income and expenditure is inevitable. Income-expenditure
cleavage has also contributed to marriage delay in Iran
in the past two decades with a focus on women leading
to emerging problems. Similarly, as a result of modernity
and new lifestyles within young women, they too expect
occupations and independent income earnings as men,
and the shortage of which is a matter of concern for
the educated female youth at the time being. At the
end, if the consumption function is to maintain in good
order, income factor, or so to say, income generation
needs to function ahead of expenditure.
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